Biology Review Test 1

The formatting on the little ASCII diagrams didn't work out... just look them up in the book.
Biology Review Test 1

1. All organisms have the following characteristics
a. They reproduce through DNA
b. They are made of one or more cells
2. Scientific Method
a. Use observation to form a hypothesis
b. Use the hypothesis to form a prediction
c. Test the prediction
d. The results then falsify or don’t falsify the hypothesis (cannot prove)
3. Covalent and Ionic bonding
a. Ionic Bonding occurs when one atom with high EN takes electrons from a low EN atom, the charged atoms then attract and align
b. Covalent bonding occurs when atoms with a small difference in EN share electrons
4. Polarity
a. Polarity occurs in covalent bonds when the more EN atom pulls the electrons closer to it, charging itself negatively and the lower EN atom positively
5. Hydrogen Bonding
a. Hydrogen bonding occurs when positively charged hydrogen atoms in covalent compounds attract to a negatively charged atom in another compound
b. Relevant Examples: Causes surface tension, moderates temperature
6. What are important properties of water?
a. Water is cohesive (surface tension), adhesive (sticks to solids), holds a good deal of heat energy, is less dense in a solid state, and is able to dissolve compounds well (is a good solvent)
7. What is a condensation reaction?
a. A condensation reaction occurs when an enzyme removes an OH from one atom and an O from another, causing them to bond
b. AKA dehydration reaction
8. What is a hydrolysis reaction?
a. A hydrolysis reaction occurs when an enzyme inserts an OH and an H into two bonded molecules, causing them to break apart
9. What is the most basic organic compound? What prefixes and suffixes do we use?
a. Hydrocarbons are the most basic
b. Prefixes tell us number of carbons; in order: meth, eth, prop, but, pent, hex, hept, oct, non, and dec
c. Suffixes tell us the type of bonds (single, double or triple)
i. –ane, -ene, -yne (they go from 1 to three in alphabetical order)
10. Be familiar with these functional groups
a. Amino- NH3
b. Hydroxyl- OH, also known as alcohols
c. Carbonyl- Carbon bonded to H and double bonded to O
i. Aldehyde: When the O is at the end of the string
ii. Ketone: When the O is in the middle of the string
d. Carboxyl- Carbon bonded to OH and double bonded to O
e. Phosphate groups: Have phosphate and oxygen, know vaguely
f. Methyl- CH3
g. Sulfhydryl- SH
11. Be familiar with 4 main groups and know: the name of the monomers (be able to draw amino acids and glucose), basic structure, bond formed by condensation reaction, types and functions, and examples
a. Carbohydrates
i. Monomer: monosaccharides, have formula of CxH2xOx, Polymer: Polysaccharide
iv. Types and Functions
1. Monomers: Monosaccharides
2. Polymers: Polysaccharides
3. Used for energy storage/release and structural purposes
v. Examples
1. Chitin: Used in exoskeleton of bugs
2. Cellulose: Used for cell walls of plants
b. Lipids
i. Monomer: Don’t really have one, but common component is fatty acid
ii. Basic Structure: Fatty acids are long hydrocarbons with a carboxyl group
1. Saturated means that they have the max number of hydrogens (no double bonds), straight
2. Unsaturated fatty acids have at least 1 double bond, bent
Again, the highlighted stuff is what is removed in the dehydration reaction
iv. Types and Functions:
1. Triglycerides: 3 fatty acids linked to a glycerol
2. Phospholipids: a glycerol with a phosphate group, a straight fatty acid, and a bent fatty acid
3. Used for water repellant, cell membranes, insulation, energy storage, and hormones
v. Examples: I think it will be okay if you use the types detailed in types and functions
c. Proteins
i. Monomer: Amino Acids, Polymer: Polypeptides
ii. Basic Structure: One or more chains of amino acids with a specific function
iii. Bond Formed: Peptide Linkage



iv. Types and Functions: Structure is closely related to function
1. Levels of Organization
a. Primary: Number and order of amino acids
b. Secondary: 3-D structure of localized regions of polypeptides; Common motifs: Alpha Helix, Beta Pleated Sheet
c. Tertiary: Overall 3-D structure of polypeptides
d. Quaternary: The way that two or more polypeptides interact to function as a single protein
2. Remember that the Alpha Helix and Beta Pleated Sheet are the most common secondary structures
v. Examples: Hemoglobin, made up of 4 polypeptides
d. Nucleic Acids
i. Monomer- Nucleotides: Has 5 carbon sugar, Phosphate group, and Nitrogenous Group. Polymer- Polynucleotide
ii. Basic Structure: RNA and DNA
1. RNA is typically a single polynucleotide strand
2. DNA is a double helix, where the two polynucleotides wrap around each other.
iii. Bond Formed: The Nitrogenous bases protrude from the sugar/phosphate backbones and pair with corresponding nucleotides (A with T and C with G)
iv. Types and Functions
1. DNA and RNA… DNA is used to store the information, while the RNA translates the information into polypeptides
v. Examples: DNA and RNA
12. Cellulose v. Amylose
a. Cellulose cross-links for stability, is the most abundant of all organic compounds. Because of its Beta Glycogen, it flip-flops on its bonds. It cannot be broken down by humans and lines up with cross-linkage because of hydrogen bonding. Amylose is a starch, its bonds are “normal”, and is commonly broken down
13. Four Levels of Protein Structure:
a. Primary: Number and order of amino acids
b. Secondary: 3-D structure of localized regions of polypeptides; Common motifs: Alpha Helix, Beta Pleated Sheet
c. Tertiary: Overall 3-D structure of polypeptides
d. Quaternary: The way that two or more polypeptides interact to function as a single protein
14. Phospholipid Structure
a. Structure: Glycerol with phosphate group, bent fatty acid, and straight fatty acid
b. The fatty acids are neutral, while the phosphate group is polar, so they line up in pairs with the phosphate on the outside and tails on the inside, called phospholipid bilayer
15. Triglyceride Structure
a. Glycerol with three fatty acids, see above for example
16. Saturated v. Unsaturated
a. Saturated means that they have the max number of hydrogens (no double bonds), straight
b. Unsaturated fatty acids have at least 1 double bond, bent
17. Nucleotide:
a. Nucleotides have a 5 carbon sugar, Phosphate group, and Nitrogenous Group. Polymer- Polynucleotide

I think there were are few errors in this one. Tell me if you find them.
Biology Review Sheet Test 3
1. What are the two types of cell transport?
a. Passive Transport is the movement of molecules into or out of the cell without any additional energy. For example, osmosis, diffusion, and facilitated diffusion are all types of passive transport
b. Active transport is the energy-requiring (in the form of ATP) moving of molecules against the concentration gradient. One example is the Sodium-Potassium pump. It takes in K+ and releases Ca+ , resulting in a greater concentration gradient (which equivalates to PE). As well, an electricity gradient can be created with greater concentrations of ions
2. What is a concentration gradient?
a. A concentration gradient is the difference in concentration of like molecules between adjoining regions
3. What is diffusion?
a. Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
i. This attempts to reach equilibrium
4. What types of substances typically diffuse directly through the phospholipid bilayer?
a. Small, non-polar substances are typically the ones that diffuse directly through the bilayer. For example, O2 and H2O can diffuse directly through the phospholipid bilayer.
5. What is facilitated diffusion?
a. Facilitated diffusion is a form of passive transport facilitated by transport proteins. It is the spontaneous passage of molecules or ions across a biological membrane passing through specific transport proteins.
6. What factors affect the rate of diffusion?
a. Temperature
b. Steepness of Concentration Gradient
c. Size of Molecules
d. Steepness of Electric Gradient
7. What is Osmosis?
a. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane
b. Enviroments
i. Hypertonic- Solute is more concentrated outside of the cell. The net movement of water is out of the cell.
ii. Hypotonic- Solute is more concentrated inside of the cell. The net movement of water is into the cell
iii. Isotonic- Solute concentration is equivalent. There is no net movement of water
8. Be familiar with the role of membrane transport proteins in active transport. Know the calcium pump and the sodium-potassium pump.
a. Transport proteins attach to certain molecules and use ATP to move them across their concentration gradient
b. Sodium-Potassium Pump
i. Cells have high amounts of potassium ions and low amounts of sodium
ii. The pump binds to 3 sodium ions and moves them to the outside when bonded to P as a result of ATP hydrolization
iii. The phosphorized pump is not attracted to the sodium ions and releases them
iv. The pump then bonds to 2 potassium ions, which dephosphorizes the pump
v. It reverts to its previous shape, bringing the potassium ions into the cell and releasing them
c. Calcium Pump
i. The high electrical and concentration gradients drive calcium ions into the cell
ii. The pump removes calcium from the cell
iii. This is important because low levels must be maintained for cell signaling
9. What are aquaporins
a. Aquaporins are water channel proteins which account for the high levels of water intake and output in certain cells (for example, kidney cells, which must filter high amounts of blood)
10. What is Endocytosis? Exocytosis?
a. Endocytosis is a process in which a cell brings material into itself by engulfing it in the cell membrane
i. Phagocytosis
1. The cell “eats” large amounts of solid material by extending pseudopodia (extensions of the membrane) around it and packaging it into a vescicle
ii. Pinocytosis
1. The cell “drinks” liquid material by creating a vescicle into which the fluid flows.
b. Exocytosis is a process in which a cell expels material by packaging it in a vescicle and merging the vescicle with the cell membrane
11. What is Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis?
a. Receptor Mediated Endocytosis is a process in which receptors in a coated pit bind to molecules on a certain substance, then activate the coating proteins to pinch off the substance in a vescicle. The receptors separate off in another vescicle and return to the cell membrane, while the vescicle containing the substance is sent to its destination.
12. What is selective permeability?
a. A property of biological membranes that allows some substances to cross more easily than others and blocks the passage of other substances altogether
13. What is energy? What are the two types?
a. Energy is the capacity to do work
b. Its two types are Kinetic and Potential Energy
i. KE is the energy of motion
ii. PE is the energy of location or structure
14. What are the two laws of thermodynamics?
a. The first law states that the amount of energy in the universe is constant
b. The second law states that energy conversion increase the amount of entropy in the universe
15. What is metabolism?
a. Metabolism is the total of all of an organism’s chemical reactions
16. Be able to explain the difference between endergonic and exergonic reactions
a. Endergonic- The products have more Potential Energy that the reactants. The reaction requires an input of energy
b. Exergonic- The reactants have more Potential Energy than the products. The reaction has a release of energy
17. What is ATP? How does it couple energy? What is phosphorylation?
a. ATP is Adenosine Triphosphate
b. Energy coupling- The energy from the exergonic breakdown of ATP into ADP+P is used to drive endergonic reactions. The energy for the endergonic reassembly of ADP+P into ATP comes from the exergonic breakdown of glucose.
c. Phosphorylation is the process in which ATP drives cellular work by attaching a phosphate group to another molecule
18. What is a catalyst?
a. A catalyst speeds up a reactions without being changed by it
19. What is an enzyme? What are its properties?
a. An enzyme is a biological catalyst that functions as a biological catalyst by lowering the energy of activation for a reaction, allowing more reactions to occur at a time.
b. Properties of an enzyme
i. Enzymes are biological catalysts
ii. All enzymes are proteins except for ribozyme (catalytic rRNA)
iii. Enzymes function best in certain temperature and pH ranges
iv. Enzymes bind substrates at their active sites
v. Enzymes are typically substrate-specific
vi. Enzymes can be regulated by inhibition and activation
20. Understand the action of enzymes and what factors affect its rate of activity
a. Enzymes function by moving the reactant(s) into a position such that it is easier to create the products
b. Their rate of activity is affected by temperature and pH
21. What is a substrate?
a. Substrate-Specific reactant that an enzyme acts on
b. Substrates fit into the active site to form product
22. What is the active site?
a. The active site is the place where the substrate acts on
23. Be familiar with the relationship between the structure and function of an enzyme
a. Enzymes can take different substrates based on their shape
b. When inhibitors bond to enzymes their active site is misshaped and they cannot complete their function
c. As eat increases, enzymes become denaturized and at they at their point of denaturization they become misshaped and don’t function properly any more
24. Be familiar with the concept of a metabolic pathway
a. A series of chemical reactions, each catalyzed by a different enzyme
b. This is a diagram of a metabolic pathway (numbers are enzymes, letters are substrates/products)
A--1--> B--2-->C--3-->D--4-->E
C. If you want to stop production of E then you can stop at 1 2 3 with an inhibitor
25. Why is it important to be able to regulate enzyme activity
a. If enzyme activity could not be regulated, we would over or under produce important enzymes
b. If we produced too much of an enzyme it could harm our body
c. If we under produced we would not meet our body’s need and would not be able to function properly
26. What are the two basic ways enzymes can be regulated?
a. Competitive inhibition
1. A competitive inhibitor binds to the active site of an enzyme and prevents the substrate from binding
b. Alosteric inhibition
1. A non competitive inhibitor binds to a place other than the active site, misshaping the active site and preventing the substrate from binding to it
2. Alosteric inhibition allows for feedback inhibition and use

27. Be able to explain in detail the two types of inhibition
a. Competitive Inhibition- An inhibitor bonds to the active site, blocking the substrate from bonding to the enzyme
b.Non-competitive/Allosteric Inhibition- An inhibitor bonds to an allosteric site, changing the shape of the enzyme and thus the active site
28. What is feedback inhibition? What type of inhibition is it?
a. Feedback inhibition is a type of allosteric inhibition in which a product of a metabolic pathway inhibits its own production by inhibiting an enzyme in that pathway.
29. What are cofactors and coenzymes?
a. Cofactors and coenzymes are substances which help an enzyme to function. Coenzymes are organic, cofactors are not.

KK this one doesn't have photos, but again, they are in the book...
Photosynthesis and Respiration Review
1. What are the net equations of Photosynthesis and Aerobic Respiration?
a. Photosynthesis: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2
b. Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6 O2  6 CO2 + 6 H2O
2. What are the properties of light?
a. Visible light is a small part of all types of electromagnetic radiation (the spectrum from 380 nm to 750 nm)
i. We perceive this light and plants use it for photosynthesis because it is the most prevalent form of light on the planet
b. Light has wave-particle duality (it exhibits properties of both waves and particles)
c. The speed of light is constant to any observer
d. When certain wavelengths of light strike an object, they excite its electrons. When the electrons return to a lower energy state, they emit a photon of light with energy equal to the difference between the two states
3. What is the structure of the chloroplast and how does that relate to its function?
a. The chloroplasts are concentrated in the cells of the mesophyll
b. The chloroplast has an envelope of two membranes enclosing an inner membrane filled with stroma
c. Suspended in the stroma are interconnected sacs called thylakoids
i. The light dependent reactions occur in their membranes, thus they are organized into sacs to maximize surface area to receive as much light as possible
4. What are the primary photosynthetic pigments? What are accessory pigments?
a. The primary photosynthetic pigments are chlorophyll a and b
i. Chlorophyll a absorbs blue-violet and red light
ii. Chlorophyll b conveys absorbed energy to chlorophyll a
b. The accessory pigments (other pigments) are carotene, xanthophyll, and phaeophyton a and b
i. These also convey energy
ii. They also protect chlorophyll and cells from excessive light energy
5. What is chemiosmosis?
a. Chemiosmosis is the process by which protons (H+) move down their concentration gradient across a membrane through ATP synthase, which uses the kinetic energy of the protons to form ATP from ADP+P
b.
6. What are the two stages of photosynthesis? What happens in the light dependent reactions? Where do they occur? What is photolysis?
a. The two stages of photosynthesis are the light dependent reactions and the Calvin Cycle
b. See Diagram Below
i. The photolysis of water creates H+ for chemiosmosis. When light strikes photosystem II, the electrons from photolysis are energized. The electron transfers from protein to protein in the Electron Transfer Chain, where its energy is used to pump H+ back into the thylakoid compartment. By the time the electron reaches photosystem I, it has lost much of its energy. Photosystem I re-energizes the electron. The electron then moves to NADP reductase, where NADP+ is reduced to NADPH.
c. The light dependent reactions occur in the thylakoids
d. Photolysis is the breakdown of 2 H2O into 4 H+, 4 e-, and 2 O2
7. Know what happens in the Calvin-Benson cycle, as discussed in class. What is another name for this? Where does it occur?
a. In the Calvin cycle, which is basically a metabolic pathway that occurs in the stroma, the ATP and NADPH from the light dependent reactions is used to convert CO2 into glucose
8. What is carbon fixation? How do some plants accomplish this differently? Why?
a. Carbon fixation is the process of CO2 molecules being converted into more complex molecules- in C4 and CAM plants CO2 is fixed into a four carbon compound- in C3 its fixed into a 3 carbon compound
b. C4 and CAM are not as common as C3- C3 plants are not as efficient in CO2 useage as C4
c. They Accomplish Carbon Fixation differently depending on the enzymes they produce-C4 plants produce more enzymes that can catch Co2 so they don’t need to open their stomata as often
9. What are stomata? How do they relate to photo synthesis?
a. Stomata are openings in the underside of a leaf that allow CO2 to enter the plant and 02 to leave
b. They are necessary to photosynthesis because they supply CO2 to the important reactions and release oxygen, which prevents unwanted binding in C3 and no ATP is produced
10. What is the first step of glucose metabolism
a. The first step is glycolysis, where 2 ATP are used to drive the conversion of glucose into 2 pyruvates, with a net release of 2 ATP and 2 NADH
11. What happens in this process? Where does it occur?
a. See 10 ^ - process occurs outside of the mitochondria in the cytoplasm
12. What is fermentation? What is another name for this process? Where does it occur?
a. Fermentation is a process that is used to continue ATP production when the need for ATP outpaces the amount of O2. Another name for this process is anaerobic repiration. It occurs in the cytoplasm
13. What are the two types of fermentation? Know the pathway for each as well as an example. What is the energy yield of fermentation? What does it accomplish?
a. The two types of fermentation are lactic acid fermentation and alcohol fermentation.
b. In Lactic Acid fermentation, the 2 pyruvates are converted to two lactates, converting NADH to NAD+ in the process
c. In alcohol fermentation, the 2 pyruvates are converted to two ethanols, in the process converting NADH to NAD+ and releasing 2 CO2
d. While fermentation has a relatively low energy yield compared to aerobic respiration (2 ATP instead of 36-38), it allows glycolysis to continue by supplying it with NAD+ (otherwise NAD+ would become a limiting reactant and glycolysis would cease_
14. Be familiar with oxidation and reduction and how they are relevant to both chapters
a. Oxidation is when electrons and protons are removed from a substance and reduction is when they are added
b. Whenever something is oxidized, something is reduced and vice versa (the materials have to come from and go somewhere…)
c. Photosynthesis is a net oxidation, as protons and electrons are added to carbons to form glucose (to contain chemical energy), while Respiration is a net reduction, as the protons and electrons are removed from glucose to take chemical energy and transfer it to ATP
15. What is Aerobic Respiration? What are the two stages? Where does each occur?
a. Aerobic Respiration is an oxygen-requiring pathway that yields a high amount of ATP compared with anaerobic respirations
b. Well… technically cellular respiration has three stages (remember that!) but glycolysis occurs in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration so it’s not counted. We’re talking about the Krebs Cycle and Electron Transfer Phosphorylation
c. The Krebs Cycle occurs inside the matrix, while Electron Transfer Phosphorylation occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochondria
16. What happens in the Krebs Cycle?
a. Before the Krebs Cycle, Pyruvate is converted to Acetyl CoA when Coenzyme A is added and CO2 is given off. In the process, NAD+ is converted to NADH
b. In the Krebs cycle, the CoA is separated from the Acetyl and 2 ATP, 6 NADH +H+, and 2 FADH2 (can also be NADH) are produced
17. What happens in Electron Transfer Phosphorylation?
a. In electron transfer phosphorylation, NADH and/or FADH2 deposit the electrons into the ETC, where they move from protein to protein, moving H+ out of the matrix. The electrons and two H+ bond to oxygen to from H2O. The H+ move back into the matrix through ATP synthase, producing a total of 32-34 ATP
18. What is the energy yield of Aerobic Respiration?
a. The energy yield of Aerobic Respiration is 32-34 ATP in Electron Transfer Phosphorylation, 2 ATP in the Krebs Cycle, and 2 ATP from glycolysis for a sum total of 36-38 ATP
19. Why do our cells undergo aerobic respiration wherever possible?
a. Our cells undergo aerobic respiration because Electron Transfer Phosphorylation, which is the main producer of ATP, doesn’t occur in anaerobic respiration
20. What is the role of oxygen at the end of electron transport? Compare to what happens to water at the beginning of the light reactions. What does this help illustrate about the relationship between photosynthesis and respiration?
a. Oxygen accepts e- and H+ at the end of electron transport to prevent a concentration gradient that would prevent electron transfer phosphorylation, thus allowing the reactions to occur. In the light reactions, water is broken down to provide H+ and e- for the reactions, thus allowing them to occur. This is one example of how photosynthesis and respiration are almost opposite to each other, with one using the products of the other for its reactants.


IMPORTANT TERMS
Autotrophs-Organisms that produce their own energy and don’t rely on other organisms
Heterotrophs-Organisms that don’t produce their own energy and rely on other organisms
Chlorophyll-Green pigment present in chloroplasts that assists in light reactions
Carotenoids-A family of pigments that broadens the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis by passing energy to Chlorophyll a + b
Xenthophylls- A yellow variant of a Carentoid
C4-(plants)- Fix CO2 into a 4 carbon compound preceding the Calvin cycle and can carry out photosynthesis even when the stomata are closed- C3 create 3 carbon compounds
CAM (plants)-Only open their stomata at night to conserve water and allow CO¬2
Pyruvate-A product of Glycolysis
Alcoholic (ethanol) Fermentation- CO2 is formed from pyruvates and and NADH is converted back to NAD+
Lactate fermentation- A pyruvate is reduced to lactate or lactic acid and used in muscle movement and is then converted back to pyruvate in the liver
NADPH-Electron carrier that assists in photosynthesis
NADH-Electron carrier formed from glycolysis
FADH2-Electron carrier formed from the citric acid cycle
Photophosphorylation-The production of ATP via chemiosmosis during light reactions
Facultative anaerobe-An organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present, but that switches to fermentation when oxygen is absent
Obligate anaerobe-An organism that only carries out fermentation- such organisms cannot use oxygen and also may be poisoned by it






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are those the answers to the reviews in the book?

These are the answers off of the review sheets that mr. parker gives to us before the tests...
I think most have the question listed

oh ok...thanks much

is one of the test reviews missing? Test 2 i think.

Yeah it is... i think i did it at somebody elses house.

what about the test on monday? have you made the review for that? cuz i mean he really did a crappy job of teaching it. we need all the help we can get.

I'm working on it now. Hopefully it will be done by tonight, if not it will be out tomorrow

what was the subject matter of the second test

im working on a review sheet for the test on monday...ill have it done sometime tonight

what was the second test??

no idea... ill try to get that and put it up to though

very nice jon.

is this it?


What is a cell?
A cell is the basic unit of structure and function in all living things

0. What are the contributions of Hooke, Von Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow?
0. Hooke- First observed cells in 1665
0. Von Leeuwenhoek- Later described moving cells using a microscopes
0. Schleiden- Created Rule 1 of the Cell Theory, a botanist
0. Schwann- Created Rule 2 of Cell Theory, studied animals
0. Virchow- Created Rule 3 of Cell Theory, a doctor
0. The various types of microscopes
. Light microscope
. Passes visible light through a thin sample and magnifies it with lenses
. Electron microscope
. Uses a beam of electrons instead of light
. Scanning Electron
. Used to study surfaces- samples are coated with a thin film of metal then the patterns of electrons are emitted-when the specimen is hit by the beam the electrons are translated into an image
. Transmission electron microscope-used to study details of internal structure-extremely thin samples are stained w heavy metals and a beam of electrons is sent through them- electromagnets focus the electrons into an image
0. What does the cell theory state
. All living things are made up of 1 or more cells
. The cell is the basic unit of structure in an organism
. All cells arise from other cells
0. What are the two main classifications of cells?
. Prokaryotic
. Usually single celled
. Flagella spin
. Don’t have nuclei or organelles
. Eukaryotic
0th. Usually multi cellular
0th. Compartmentalized
0th. Flagella sway
0. What limits the size a cell can be?
0th. As a cell increases in volume it also increases in surface area
0th. But as surface area increases volume increases faster
0th. Because surface area effectively represents the amount of materials that can be brought in and volume represents the amount of material needed, the amount needed will eventually exceed the amount that can be brought in
0. What components are common to all cells?
Zeroth. A cell membrane composed of a phospholipid bilayer with various membrane proteins
Zeroth. All cells contain cytoplasm
0. What is an organelle-what are they?
Zeroth. An organelle is a structure within the cell that carries out a specific function
Zeroth. Manufacturing
0. Nucleus: DNA synthesis, RNA synthesis, Assembly of ribosomal subunits
0. Ribosomes: Protein Synthesis
0. Rough ER: Synthesis of membrane lipids and proteins
0. Smooth ER: Lipid Synthesis, detoxification in liver, Calcium Ion storage
Zeroth. Br3akdown
0. Lysosomes: Digestion of ingested food, bacteria, and recycling of organelles and macromolecules
0. Vacuoles: Digestion, Chemical Storage, Cell Enlargement, Water Balance
0. Peroxisomes: Diverse metabolic processes, with breakdown of H2O2 by-product
Zeroth. Energy Processing
. Mitochondria: Conversion of chemical energy of food to chemical energy of ATP. Its DNA is identical to that of the mother
. Chloroplasts: Conversion of light energy to chemical energy of sugars
Zeroth. Support, Movement, and Communication between Cells
〇. Cytoskeleton: Maintenance of cell shape, anchorage of organelles, movement of organelles within cells, cell movement, and transportation of messages in between the exterior of the cell and the interior
〇. Extracellular Matrix: Binding of cells in tissues, surface protection, regulation of cellular activities
〇. Cell Junctions: Communication between cells, binding of cells in tissues
〇. Cell Walls: Maintenance of cell shape and skeletal support, surface protection, binding of cells in tissue
0. Know the structure of the cell membrane and how it relates to various proteins
0. The cell membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer (which determines the structure) and the membrane proteins (determine function). This is called a fluid mosaic because the “fluid” (which are the phospholipids, because the structures can drift about in the membrane) have a mosaic of structures (usually proteins) in them
0. What are the two types of membrane proteins?
０. The two types of membrane proteins are integral (those that span the cell membrane) and peripheral (those that exist mostly on one side)
０. The functions of membrane proteins are:
0. Framework/Structure: Attach to the cytoskeleton and Extra Cellular Matrix, give a stronger structure
0. Cell Recognition: Serve as identification tags recognized by other cells
0. Junctions: Attach cells to other cells
0. Enzymes: Carry out sequential steps in processes
0. Receptors: Bond to chemical messages from other cells and relay them to other proteins, causing a chain reaction. This process is called signal transduction
0. Transport: Since only a few substances can cross the bilayer by themselves, transport proteins must move larger, polar molecules
0. What is the cytoskeleton? What is it made of? What is its purpose?
〇. The cytoskeleton is composed of protein fibers that allow for locomotion and intracellular transport and help determine the structure of a cell
〇. Microfilaments:
0. Composed of Actin (A polymer of polymers)
0. Functions: Cytokinesis, structure, muscle contraction
〇. Intermediate Filaments
0. Typically permanent structures
0. Used mostly in cell structure
〇. Microtubules
０. Composed of tubulin
０. Functions: “Zip Lines” for motor proteins, move chromosomes, make up cilia and flagella
0. What is Dynein?
０. Dynein is one of the most common motor proteins. Another common one is kinesin
0. Be familiar with the endomembrane system, as discussed in class
０. The endomembrane system is a system of organelles involved in the synthesis, modification, addressing, storage, and transport of substances throughout the cell.
０. Parts: ER, Golgi Body, Vescicles, Lysosomes, and Vacuoles
0. The Endoplasmic Reticulum:
0. Rough ER has ribosomes and creates proteins and phospholipids for membranes.
0. Smooth ER has enzymes to synthesize lipids. In the liver, it detoxifies chemicals. It can also store calcium ions for cell contraction
0. The Golgi Body
00. A stack of membraneous sacs called cisternae. Its receiving end is called the cis face and its sending end is called the trans face. When a vescicle releases its contents into the lumen (interior space), the contents are tagged, grouped, modified, and sent out the trans face to their destination
0. Vescicles
. A sac made of membrane in the cytoplasm in the cytoplasm in a eukaryotic cell
0. Lysosomes
. Specialized vescicles containing hydrolytic enzymes for intracellular digestion
0. Vacuole
. A membrane enclosed sac that is part of the endomembrane system of a eukaryotic cell. Stores and digests, also maintains water balance
0. What are the three types of cell junctions
0. Tight Junctions
0. AKA Desmosomes
0. Proteins attaching to each cell pull the membranes close together, forming a watertight seal
0. Anchoring Junctions
0. Similar to stretchy rivets
0. Fasten cells into pliable sheets
0. The junctions are anchored to intermediate keratin filaments
0. Gap Junction
0. Channels through both membranes to allow faster transfer of hormones and other substances
0. What is the Extracellular Matric
0. An structure outside of the cell membrane found in animal cells composed of glycoproteins (especially collagen) connected to a long central polysaccharide molecule
0. What are characteristics of prokaryotes?
0. Prokaryotes have no organelles, the DNA and Ribosomes are free-floating
0. Prokaryotic flagella spin
0. Differences between plant cells and Animal Cells
0. Both have mitochondria, but only plant cells have chloroplasts
0. Plants have cell walls, and thus plasmodesmata
0. Plants have a large central vacuole
0. Endosymbiosis Theorem
0. Organelles that began as independent organisms that were absorbed into other organisms
0. Evidence: Mitochondria and Chloroplasts have their own DNA and Ribosomes

Terms
0. Anchoring Junctions: Junctions that function as “supporting rivets” between cells. Stretchy and allow for movement
0. Cell wall: The phospholipid bilayer containing all of the organelles and the nucleus. It controls what enters and leaves the cell
0. Chloroplast: An organelle found in plants that absorbs sunlight and controls photosynthesis
0. Chromatin: DNA tightly coiled with associated proteins
0. Cilium: A short hair-like strand of microtubules that hangs off of the cell and allows for particle collection and movement
0. Cisternae: Pancake-like structures that are flattened sacs stacked together to form the Golgi Body
0. Cristae: A wavy phospholipid bilayer found in the small intestines and mitochondria
0. Compound Light Microscope: A microscope that uses multiple lenses to focus light through a thin sample
0. Cytoplasm: The entire contents of the cell excluding the contents of the nucleus
0. Cytosol: Fluid containing the organelles
0. Cytoskeleton: A network of protein fibers in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell: includes microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules
0. Desmosome: Another name for a tight junction
0. Endosymbiotic Theory: The theory that organelles came about when one organism absorbed another in a symbiotic relationship
0. Endoplasmic Reticulum: An extensive membranous network in a eukaryotic cell. Continuous with the outer nuclear membrane and composed of ribosome studded and ribosome free regions
0. Eukaryotic cell: a type of cell that has a membrane enclosed nucleus and other membrane enclosed organelles. All organisms except bacteria and archaea are composed of eukaryotic cells
0. Flagellum: a long cellular appendage specialized for locomotion. Eukaryotic flagella have a 9+2 arrangement of microtubules
0. Gap Junction: A type of junction between cells that allows for exchange of chemicals and links the cytoplasm
0. Granum: A stack of hollow disks formed of thykaloid membrane in a chloroplast. Grana are the sites where light energy is trapped by chlorophyll and converted into chemical energy during photosynthesis
0. Golgi Body: an organelle in eukaryotic cells consisting of stacks of membranous sacs that modify store and ship products of the endoplasmic reticulum
0. Integral and peripheral (proteins): peripheral proteins cover the surface of the phospholipid bilayer and integral proteins are contained within the bi layer
0. Intermediate filament: An intermediate sized protein fiber that is one of the three main kinds of fibers making up the cytoskeleton
0. Lysosome: Specialized vescicles containing hydrolytic enzymes for intracellular digestion
0. Matrix: The material between eukaryotic cells
0. Microfilament: The thinnest of the three main kinds of protein fibers making up the cytoskeleton of a eukaryotic cell; a solid, helical rod composed of the globular protein actin
0. Microtubule: The thickest of the three main kinds of fibers making up the cytoskeleton of a eukaryotic cell; a straight hollow tube made of globular proteins called tubulins. Microtubules form the basis of the structure and movement of cilia and flagella
0. Mitochondrion: An organelle where cellular respiration occurs. Enclosed by two concentric membranes, it is where the cells ATP is made
0. Nuclear Envelope: A double membrane, perforated with pores, that encloses the nucleus and separates it from the rest of the eukaryotic cell
0. Nucleoid: A dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell
0. Nucleolus: A structure within the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell where ribosomal RNA is made and assembled with proteins imported from the cytoplasm to make ribosomal subunits
0. Nucleoplasm: The fluid contained within the nucleus
0. Nucleus: An atoms central core, containing protons and neurons. The genetic control center of a eukaryotic cell
0. Peroxisome: Diverse metabolic processes, with breakdown of H2O2 by-product
0. Plasmodesmata: The channels in the cell walls of a plant
0. Plasma membrane: The membrane that sets a cell off from its surroundings and acts as a selective barrier to the passage of ions and molecules into and out of the cell; consists of a phospholipid bilayer in which are embedded molecules of protein and cholesterol
0. Prokayotic: A cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and other membrane-enclosed organelles; found only in the domain Bacteria and Archaea
0. Ribosome: A cell structure consisting of RNA and protein organized into two subunits and functioning as the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. The ribosomal subunits are constructed in the nucleolus
0. SEM: Scanning Electron Microscope; a microscope that uses an electron beam to study the surface architecture of a cell or other specimen
0. Stroma: The fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic structures from carbon dioxide and water; sugars are made in the stroma by the enzymes of the Calvin cycle
0. Thylakoid: One of a number of disk-shaped membraneous sacs inside a chloroplast. Thylakoid membranes contain chlorophyll and the enxymes of the light reactions of photosynthesis. A stack of thylakoids is called a granum
0. TEM: Transmission Electron Microscope; a microscope that uses an electron beam to study the internal structure of thinly sectioned specimens
0. Tight Junction: A junction between cells that does not allow for intercellular exchanges and is firm and tight-found in skin cells
0. Vacuole: A membrane enclosed sac that is part of the endo membrane system of a eukaryotic cell having diverse functions
0. Vesicle: A sac made of membrane in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell
0. Vesicle transport: A vesicle that transport proteins to the plasma membrane
0. 9+2 microtubule arrangement: there are 9 pairs of microtubules on the outer layer and 1 pair on the inner layer of a cilia or flagella

why is the numbering all screwed up?

w00t way to go sean! Nice save!

Took me about 1 hour to find this thing in my gmail so enjoy it. This is the one connor and drew made, since i cant find the one Erickson and I made

Biology Review Sheet on CELLS

1. What is a cell?

A cell is the basic unit of structure and function in all living things.

2. Be familiar with the contributions of Hooke, Von Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow to the study of cells.

Robert Hooke identified and named “cells.” Von Leeuwenhoek constructed a very powerful lens to view small objects that had never been seen by human eyes before, such as bacterial cells, protozoa, and blood and yeast cells (“animalcules”). Virchow (all cells arise from other living cells), Schleiden (all plants are made of cells), and Schwann (all animals are made of cells) formed the Cell Theory (See question #4).

3. Be familiar with the various types of microscopes discussed in class.

A light microscope (LM), works by passing visible light through a specimen, such as a microorganism or a thin slice of animal or plant tissue. Glass lenses in the microscope bend the light to magnify the image of the specimen and project the image into the viewer’s eye or onto the photographic film or a video screen.

An electron microscope (EM) focuses an electron beam through, or onto the surface of, a specimen. An electron microscope achieves a hundredfold greater resolution than a light microscope.

A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a microscope that uses an electron beam to study the surface architecture of a cell or other specimen.

A transmission electron microscope (TEM) uses an electron beam to study the internal structure of thinly sectioned specimens.

4. What does the CELL THEORY state?

The three points of cell theory are

1. All living things are made up of cells (one or more).
2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function for all living things.
3. All cells arise from preexisting cells.



5. What are the two main classifications of cells? Be able to explain the differences between them.

A prokaryotic cell does NOT have a membrane-enclosed nucleus and other membrane-enclosed organelles; found only in domains Bacteria and Archaea.

A eukaryotic cell DOES have a membrane-enclosed nucleus and other membrane-enclosed organelles. All organisms except bacteria and archaea are composed of eukaryotic cells.

6. What limits the size a cell can be?

The cell size is limited by the ratio of cell surface area to cell volume: 4 x pi (squared) or 4 x pi x r (cubed).

7. What components are common to ALL cells?

The cytoplasm, phospholipid membrane (plasma membrane), ribosomes, and DNA are common to ALL cells.




8. What is an organelle? Be familiar all of the organelles and cell structures discussed in the textbook and in class; know structure and function.

An organelle is a membrane-enclosed structure with a specialized function within the cell.

9. Know the structure of the cell membrane and how it relates to its various functions (FLUID MOSAIC MODEL).

The cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with various membrane proteins; allows certain substances to enter/exit the cell (semipermeable).

10. What are the two main types of membrane proteins? What important functions do membrane proteins have?

The two main types of membrane proteins are integral (span the bilayer), and peripheral (exist entirely or mostly on one surface of a bilayer). The membrane proteins have 5 functions:

1) Transport- allows substances into or out of cell (active, passive, ion channels, etc.)

2) Communication- allows substances to pass directly between adjacent cells

3) Recognition- recognizes antigens or cell type, important for immune function

4. Receptor proteins- binds antigens (hormones), or other molecular stimuli
5. Adhesion- allows the cell to bind to other cells



11. What is the cytoskeleton? What is it made of? What is its purpose?

The cytoskeleton is a network of protein fibers in the cytoplasm. The cytoskeleton is made of 3 different types of fiber: microfilaments, intermediate filament, and microtubules. It aids in locomotion (cell movement), intracellular transport, and support and shape of the cell.

12. What is dynein?

Dynein is a type of motor protein that moves via the microtubules (“zip lines”). Dynein aids the movement of the cell through the microtubules contained inside a cilia. The movements of the dyneins cause the cilia or flagella to bend, which causes the cell to move.

13. Be familiar with the endomembrane system, as discussed in class.

The endomembrane system is the system of organelles involved in the synthesis, modification, addressing, storage, packaging, and transport of substances in the cell (mostly proteins and lipids). The organelles contained in the endomembrane system include the golgi body, vesicles, lysosomes, vacuoles, and the endoplasmic reticulum.

14. What are the three types of cell junctions? What is the function of each?

At tight junctions, the membranes of neighboring cells are very tightly compressed against each other, knit together by proteins. Forming continuous seals around cells, tight junctions prevent leakage of extracellular fluid across a layer of epithelial cells and into surrounding tissues.

Anchoring junctions function like rivets, fastening cells together into strong sheets. Intermediate filaments made of sturdy keratin proteins anchor these junctions in the cytoplasm.

Gap junctions (a.k.a. communicating junctions) are channels that allow small molecules to flow through protein-lined pores between neighboring cells.

15. What is the extracellular matrix?

The extracellular matrix is responsible for the binding of cells in tissues, protecting and supporting the plasma membrane, and the regulation of cellular activities. The main components of the ECM are glycoproteins, proteins that have been bonded with carbohydrates.

16. What are characteristics of prokaryotes?

Although they are in some ways similar to eukaryotes, prokaryotes have some radically different characteristics. To start, prokaryotic cells DO NOT have a nucleus. Instead, their DNA is contained in a region called the nucleoid. Most prokaryotic cells are 1-10 µm big, about 1/10th the size of the average eukaryotic cell. A prokaryotic cell’s ribosomes are slightly different and smaller than that of the ribosomes of a eukaryotic cell.

17. What are the 3 important differences between plant and animal cells?

1) Plant cells have chloroplasts

2) Plant cells have cell walls

3) Plant cells have larger vacuoles than animal cells

18. What is the endosymbiosis hypothesis? What evidence supports this?

The hypothesis of endosymbiosis proposes that mitochondria and chloroplasts were formerly small prokaryotes that began living within larger cells. The major pieces of evidence to support this hypothesis are that mitochondria divide on their own and chloroplasts and mitochondria have their own DNA (prokaryotic in nature).

Sean is that the review Erickson and I did? where did you find it?

i save all of them on my computer, for reasons like these

good thing sean put up jons idk if we can trust double d...why is the numbering all messed up?

we should all own this final.

I dont know which test this was or whether or no Jon already did this but.....here

Biology Study Guide
1. What are the two main types of cell transport? Active and passive transport
2. What is a concentration gradient? The difference in concentrations of like molecules between adjoined regions
3. What is diffusion? Net movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
4. What type of substances typically diffuse through the phospholipids bilayer? Examples? Typically small, non-polar molecules examples are O2 and CO2
5. What is facilitated diffusion? When a transport protein makes it possible for a substance to move down its concentration gradient that would not otherwise be able to.
6. What factors affect the rate of diffusion? Temperature, steepness of the concentration gradient, size of the molecules, electric gradient
7. What is osmosis? What are the 3 osmotic environments and how do they determine net movement of water? Specifically the diffusion of water across a semi permeable membrane, Hypertonic (out of cell) Hypotonic (into cell) Isotonic (neither)
8. What is the role of membrane transport proteins in active transport? Examples? The transport protein is powered by ATP to move molecules against their concentration gradient, an example would be a sodium potassium pump which pumps potassium into the cell and sodium out of the cell, both against their concentration gradients through phosphorylation
9. What are aquaporins? A transport protein in the plasma membrane of some plant or animal cells that facilitate the diffusion of water across the membrane
10. What is endocytosis (both pinocytosis and phagocytosis)? Exocytosis? Endocytosis is when a cell takes in a substance. In pinocytosis the cell takes in tiny vesicles of fluid, it is not specific so it takes in any and all solutes; phagocytosis is when the cell wraps an extension called a pseudopodium around a particle and wraps it in a vacuole. Exocytosis is the export of bulky material such as proteins and polysaccharides by a vesicle with the material in it fusing to the membrane and therefore expelling the substance
11. What is receptor-mediated endocytosis? Explain and give a specific example to illustrate its relevance. It is when receptor proteins for a specific molecule are embedded in regions of the membrane that are lined by a layer of coat proteins. An example of this would be the intake of cholesterol (LDL)
12. What is meant by selective permeability? How does a cell’s membrane structure allow for this? Only certain things are allowed to pass through, and since the phospholipids bilayer is dense and has a non polar inside, only small, non polar molecules are allowed easy passage
13. What is energy? What are the two types? Capacity to do work; kinetic or potential energy
14. What is the first law of thermodynamics? 2nd law? What is entropy? 1: amount of energy is constant in the universe, it is neither created nor destroyed but merely converted 2:nature moves towards increased entropy, entropy: disorder
15. What is metabolism? The totality of an organisms’ chemical reactions
16. What is the difference between endergonic and exergonic reactions? Endergonic reactions require more energy to break to bonds in the reactants than is release in the formation of the products and exergonic reactions require less energy to break to bonds in the reactants than is released
17. What is ATP? How does it couple endergonic and exergonic reactions in living things? What is phosphorylation? ATP is the “currency” for energy in all living things. It couples energy by breaking down the ATP in an exergonic reaction into ADP+P and energy, this energy is used to build DNA, move motor proteins, muscle contraction etc. Energy released from the breakdown of glucose is used to turn ADP+P into ATP in an endergonic reaction. Phosphorylation is the transfer of a phosphate group, usually from ATP, to a molecule.
18. What is a catalyst? Substances that speed up the rate of a chemical reactions but are not altered by the reaction
19. What is an enzyme? What its properties? Usually proteins that increase the rate of an action by lowering the energy of activation but is not altered by the reaction, they are affected by pH and temperature, are almost always a protein, bind substrate(s) in their active site, typically substrate specific, and can be regulated

20. What do enzymes do and what factors affect the rate of enzyme activity? They increase the rate of an action by lowering the energy of activation but is not altered by the reaction, they are affected by pH and temperature
21. What is a substrate? The thing that binds to the active site of an enzyme and is acted on
22. What is the active site? The part of the enzyme that the substrate binds to so that the enzyme can perform its job
23. What is the relationship between structure and function in an enzyme? The structure determines the function, so if the shape of an enzyme is altered than it will no longer function, which is why inhibitors work
24. What is a metabolic (biochemical) pathway? A series of chemical reactions, each catalyzed by a different enzyme
25. Why is it important to be able to regulate enzymes? So that there is never too much of one type of product or not enough of another. There are also some cases when products are rarely needed so the enzyme needs to be activated to even function
26. What are the two basic ways enzymes are regulated? Competitive and allosteric inhibition
27. What is the difference between the two types of inhibition? Competitive binds in the active site and noncompetitive bind in the allosteric site
28. What is feedback inhibition? What type is used for this? Explain. When a product of a metabolic pathway inhibits an earlier enzyme so that more product cannot be made, this is noncompetitive (allosteric) because after being altered it won’t fit in the active site but still may be able to bind somewhere else
29. What are cofactors? What a coenzymes? Examples? Cofactors are non-protein molecules or ions that are required for the proper function of an enzyme (zinc, iron, or copper). Coenzymes are organic molecules serving as a cofactor. Most vitamins function as coenzymes in important metabolic reactions